The Foreign Policy Decision Making Politics Essay

The Foreign Policy Decision fashioning Politics shewPolitic like any(prenominal) other concept in the mixer science derriere be delimitd in various shipway and also politics dope be utter to be customary meaning politics is very were. According to Aristotle firearm is a indemnity- reservation animal. To him every hu gentlemans gentleman being belonged to a coun assay and no man could be self-fulfilwork forcet outback(a) the state. Individual, when isolated he give tongue to is non self-sufficient But he who is unable to live in activatenership or who has no need because he is sufficient for himself must be all a beast or a god (Somervill J. and Santoni R. E, 1963, 61,62). As men find themselves in a society they occupy to create finale for them self or take termination from other reservation them venture in a goernmental manner. wizard seat say that poltics bechance in every purlieu sluice in the bedroom were the man or the woman has to take certain decisions there.Many scholars try to define politica in their own way, in the book of Robert Dahl Modem insurance- do depth psychology (1976, 1-12), Harold D. Lass hygienic delineate politics as who gets what, when and how, to David Easton a nonher scholer scholar of poltical science said the discipline concerns itself with the authoritative allocation of sets whiles Max Weber a German sociology defines politics as a traffichip of originator, rule and authority.The cat valium element in these and several other definition of politics and semi governmental activity is that they all agree with Aristotle that every society consists of rulers and the ruled. Therefore in every human community there is the present of index number, authority or rule.A polity is typically described as a formula or rule to guide decisions and achieve rational events. The term is not normally employ to denote what is actually done this is normally referred to as each procedure or protocol. Polici es be generally stick toed by the Board of or senior governance body within an make-up whereas procedures or protocols would be developed and adopted by senior executive director officers. A insurance insurance policy mass be con situationred as a narrative of Intent or a Commitment. For that reason at least, the decision-makers smoke be held accountable for their Policy. A policy maker is a person with power to curve or determine policies and practices at an global, subject, regional, or local level. It whoremaster be said to be the actions and inaction of government, what the government planned to do or not to do.Polity,is used to described a governmental de merely or stureture much(prenominal) as those institution responsible for making the policy or those that the policy pass by dint of before they actual snuff it policies, these include the ministry, department and agancies of a state or government. It can be used to also described a potical system.The a scar cely of making policies is more or less kind of the activity of the granding mill that is how the granding mill operates. We have the machine were u give but your millet or corn inside it for it to grand and it will come out not as millet or core but as flour and when it is intimately not granded u will stick it back into the mill again to grand it until you get a well granded flour.The same apply to policies, here the millet or the corn will be the bill which is puzzle outd mostly by politics and the machinc will be the code that is the various institution who work on the bill before it becomes a policy and the flour which is the final product will be the outcome that is the policy itself. Just like the granding will machine when the policy is not well done or does not achieve it aim it has to go through the machine again until it suit the country and the slew.In the process of making a policy it is affected by several factors much(prenominal) as interest groups, man opin ion, media and so on. These factors can be grouped into two forms that is the internal and external surroundings. These two forms of the environment affect the outcome of a policy or shape the policy outcome.Foreign policy decision makingAccording to Chanan (2002, 2), three main models will be used to built a general model into which the role of the media can be seen. The focus of these models is recognizing the environment as major excitant of extraneous policy decision making processes. In explaining these three models chanan made used of scholarly work.According Snyder et al. (1969203), Decision makers act upon and respond to conditions and factors that exist outside them and the governmental organization of which they are a part. Setting has two aspects external and internal. . Setting is really a set of categories of potentially relevant factors and conditions that whitethorn affect the action of any stateThese authors describe the internal cathode-ray oscilloscope as a hu man environment composed of culture and commonwealth and include overt opinion (Snyder et al., 1969201 203). If we adopt a revised spot on this climb, the media whitethorn be a major component of this environment. It can be described as the tool which expresses the non-governmental interpretations and expectations of the various members or groups of the society as described in Snyders model (Snyder et al., 1969204), as well as a tool to express government policy in state-owned or dominated media.Michael Brecher developed a much more detailed role model for worldwide policy decision-making analysis, and he mixd the media explicitly as the chat network within the political system which enables the flow of selective information rough the operational environment to the incumbent elite (Brecher, 197211 183-207). Brechers framework is environmental in its design, and he believes that The inappropriate policy system comprises an environment or setting. The operational environ ment defines the setting in which distant policy decisions are taken. The concept of setting refers to a set of potentially relevant factors and conditions, which whitethorn affect a states external behaviour. The operational environment thus sets the parameters or boundaries within which decision-makers must act. (Brecher,19722-4).But Brecher, like the other authors, does not incorporate the media explicitly as one of the input variables of the strange policy decision-making process. By input variable I mean an external factor, part of the international environment. Perceiving the media as an input variable means understanding its role in influencing society and politics, in agenda setting and in constructing reality. Brecher and the other scholars of abroad policy see the media in a narrower way, as a dribble through which the operational environment can have an have-to doe with on the foreign policy process. This impact exists only to the extent that it is communicated to th e elite. Information may be communicated in a variety of ways the fix media press, books, radio, and TV (Brecher, 197210).Brecher and Snyder (et al.), and later Papadakis and Starr perceive the media as an internal component of the process, a wrinkle to deliver messages from the diplomatical-political-security environment to the leaders. Such media, as information channels, have a minimal role in influencing leaders and their decisions. The broader perspective, which does not exist in the international transaction literature, suggests that the media are part of the external-international environment which influences policy, and perceives the press and TV as external components or originations, as an input variable which drives decision processes as the other external input variables of the environment (i.e., regional power organise, other actors economic capabilities, etc.).In a more subtle way, the media may be seen not only as part of the international environment, but als o as part of the internal environment of the state. In the state the media are not just information channels, they form a chat network influencing policy from within the state, as well as the political party system, interest groups or the socio-economic stratification of society.A third environmental foreign policy decision-making model was developed by Papadakis and Starr (1987) to analyze the process in small states, but it is relevant to dealing with other states as well. The environment which forms the input for the policy-making process is described as a structure of opportunities, risks, and potential costs and benefits, constraining the decision makers (Russett and Starr, 199221). The authors did not incorporate the mass media into their model, neither as forming part of the societal level of environment, nor as part of the opportunities or constraints internally influencing a government in its foreign policy decision-making processit should be noted that all these models s ee the role of the fig as an important mechanism in the decision-making process which is also potently influenced by the media (Brecher, 1972, 11-13 Elitzur, 1986Vertzberger, 1990). The image is a the total cognitive, affective, and evaluative structure of the air unit, or its internal view of itself and the universe (Boulding in Brecher, 197213).According to Chanan (2002,6) The media have a twofold role in the environment., they first provide input into the process as an independent variable added to environments described in the antecedent models of Snyder et al., Brecher and Papadakis and Starr. Here the leaders react to the perceived reality as constructed by the press and take it into consideration. The second one is that it is part of the environment which foreign policy makers try to affect or influence by making their decisions. This implies that these leaders who perform in an environment which includes the media take political decisions to mould problems, but at the s ame m they try to make such decisions that will improve their image or develop a foment that will affect the media dealing with the relevant international events and interactions. This is he said is the outturn environment component of the environment.The subject of the media on foreign policies MakingThe effects of the media on foreign policy decision making can be seen in two (2) fold or it is a double-enged saw. At one enged or side the media is seen as an input variable influencing foreign policy decision making process and at the other enged or side it is seen as an output variable, which compels leaders to relate to it in their decisions ( chanan 20027)One way through which the media effect foreign policy decision making process is through agenda settings. Paul Lazarsfeld and Robert Merton (1971) in their work gave the favorable role of the media as Status-Conferral function. To Lazarsfeld and Merton ( 1971560-561) this role means the mass media confer billet on public issues, persons, organizations, and social movements. Common experience as well as research testifies that the social standing of persons or social policies is brocaded when these command favorable attention in the mass media. The mass media give prestige and enhance the authority of individuals and groups by legitimizing their statusIn assay to look at the role of the media in foreign policy decision process, Bernard cohen (1963) made used of this idea. To Cohen ( 196312-13), It is here, in the description of the political environment and the clue of the policy alternatives that give the best promise of managing the environment, that we shall find the press acting such an important role in current thinking astir(predicate) foreign policy. This map-making function of the press is so central to the real impact of the press in the foreign policy field that a a few(prenominal) words of elaboration may be appropriate. .Cohen (1963, 177) went on to say that For most of the foreign policy audience, the really effective political map of the knowledge domain that is to say, their operational map of the land is drawn by the reporter and the editor, not by the cartographer. The press.. may not be successful much of the clip in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about.The last statement is the basis for agenda setting approach, which is mostly related to Maxwell McCombs (1972 1981). McCombs (1972177) stated that, While the mass media may have little influence on the direction or passion of emplacements, it is hypothesized that the mass media set the agenda for each political stir, influencing the salience of attitudes to struggled the political issuesMcQuail (1994356-357) presented this approach as a four-fold hypothesis Public debate is delineated by salient issues (an agenda for action) The agenda derives from a combination of public opinion and political choice. Mass media countersignwo rthiness and information reflect the sum and order the priority of issues This representation of issues in the mass media exerts an independent effect on issue content and on relative salience in public opinion.The mass media is greatly relied upon to keep the public and government apprised of crucial developments and events on the world stage as they unfold. Most times, the only source of information available to the public is the media and as such, the media forms the basis of views and opinions on world events and issues as it massively influences public opinion thereby setting the agenda for government policy.The media has become an instrument of power that influences government policies and can authorise national boundaries the media through agenda setting makes issues somewhat important to the public, and the policy makers to take action (Tumber and palmer, 2004). The rise in the availability of real-time news cause policy makers to react swiftly than before to public opini on. This influence of the media on the public or government could be achieved by either impacting on the public who in turn will put drive on the governments to make certain decisions considered therefore as an indirect influence on policy making, or by creating an impression on the policy makers themselves thereby prompting them to action.The media played a role in influencing the war in Iraq. Saddam Husseins ability to acquire and produce weapons of mass terminal (WMD), his cruel and inhumane acts to his own people, using chemical agents on his people is enough evidence to prove his ability to use WMD on an enemy or opponent (Mazarr, 2007). However, this was not the only reason the united States relied on to take a unilateral decision to invade Iraq and discharge the dictator. Certainly, the media played an important role in conveying the message to the public. It substantially used information concerning Saddam Hussein atrocities to prompt US public opinion and defend Presid ent Bushs stand to wage war against Iraq. The social intercourse of the United States was also influenced by the information transmitted by the media as the resolution to go to war with Iraq was deliberated in front of millions of viewers.The presidents decision to go to war was justified by the media through the messages communicated to the public. Although it could be argued that the decision was already made in advance, but the media was used to capture successfully the deliberations of the US congress. The media made sure that the American public saw and heard always about the evil to be confronted so as to enhance the rubber of the world.FramingThe media construct reality with another tool, called framing. This technique is important, since any political conflict centers on the struggle over interpretive frames (Wolfsfeld, 1993, xiii Wolfsfeld, 1997a, 13-30, 31-35, Scheufele, 1999,103-122). In this process, the media transform the nature of events through formats, which cons titute ideological or value perspectives in which the media focus on story lines, symbols, and relevant stereotypes (Entman, 1991 Entman and Rojecki, 1993 Entman and Page, 1994 Iyengar and Simon, 1994, 171). The evidence indicates that individuals views of national issues are altered by the way in which television news frames them (Iyengar, 1994, 141). Therefore, in the competition over media frames some relevant factors should be analyzed, such as the ways in which political actors are referred to and nuances of the use of words (e.g., in headlines) (Roeh and Nir, 1993, 178-180 Wolfsfeld, 1997a, 49). Finally, framing is the process in which the media create the images that reflect and pervade reality in the foreign policy decision-making processes.The media as an output environmentWe are now going to look at the media as an output variable. We are going to see the role of the media as part of the environment which foreign policy makers try to affect or influence when making decisi ons. To chanan (20028) this means that leaders who perform in an environment which includes the media make political decisions to solve problems, but at the same time try to make decisions that will improve their image or develop a campaign that will affect the media that deal with the relevant international events and interactions.The media managementHow do the leaders (and their media advisors) join foreign-policy decisions with considerations that take into account the media environment? How do they try to affect the media to reflect a favorable attitude, or to frame their side of the story in an international conflict? This is achieved by media management (MM), defined with the common term twisting.The processes of utilizing the media are varied and apply to national as well to foreign policies (Gergen, 1991 Ben Eliyahu, 1993 Cook, 1998 Kurtz, 1998 Paletz, 1998 Pfetsch, 1998). These policies can range from initiating rearage to government-arranged censorship from classifying i nformation and data to pooling journalists (see figure 4).Moreover, journalists may be restricted in their movement, veritable selectively, or favored by leaders according to their positive- assistive coverage. Administrations and governments who need the media to cover their political activities and their foreign policy should promote give and take relations with the press.Who is in Charge?In managing the media covering decision-making, governments use professionals, public relations specialists ormarketing professionals. These professionals work together with the ministerial level and alongside the spokespersons in charge of media relations in the relevant offices. Furthermore, they consider allowing these spokespersons and even some of the professionals to be present at the decision-making process. The optimal method is allowing them to be involved in the processes and contribute their professional input.MM or spin techniques are used on the diplomatic front to promote two-eye d violet processes, as well as in times of conflict and war. When foreign policy decisions are made, or peace policies are adopted, governments may inhere in these policies with threefold PR strategies toward the media. Foreign policy officials (and their media advisors) can disregard or ignore the press (e.g., not convey any message to the media) they can try to develop a spin (as explained earlier) or they can adopt a policy that is only media-oriented (e.g., only publishing public announcements without any real political action).By choosing any of these options, a government influences the media by regulating the flow of information. It is trying to affect the political environment through the media while competing with the opposing political powers, who try to influence the media as well. When governments obey in taking control of diplomatic events and enjoy a mellowed degree of public consensus, the news media become supportive, and the role of the PR professionals is mean to preserve and promote this support. But when a government loses control over the political-diplomatic process, the media become independent and critical (Wolfsfeld, 1997a, 25 Wolfsfeld, 1997b, 30-34). In this negative political environment, the role of MM professionals is more complex, and they try influence the media to change their attitude and be less critical, more understanding and even supportive.In the diplomatic-cooperative arenas of international relations, leaders use the media to keep options open and at the same time to build consensus (Ben Eliyahu, 1993 Cook, 1998 Kurtz, 1998 Paletz, 1998 Pfetsch, 1998). Here, the media, by setting policy agendas and stimulating popular support for policies, provide tools for leaders to assert control. Moreover, a leaders staff can utilize the media to deliver specific messages to specific audiences (Gergen, 1991, 55-56 OHeffernan, 1991, 62-67, 105-112 OHeffernan, 1994, 242). In addition, the medias role as a promoter of public debate s on policy issues can be used as a tool to gain support and reposition public opinion (Hindell, 1995 Powlick and Katz,1998, 29-61 Weiman, 1994, 291-307).In order to achieve the best results in these processes, leaders and their MM professional advisors may use various diplomatic channels with regard to the media. They can decide to keep diplomatic interactions secret, hide behind closed doors or made public (Gilboa, 1998a, 211-225 Gilboa 1998b,56-75) and work with the media accordingly.